Sharp Lines and Clear Skies: Writing Transparent Textures

Author: Samantha J. Stewart, Technical Research Scientist at NASA’s Marshall Space Flight Center
Reprinted from Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 36, No. 3 (July-September 1999)

Transparent materials are being used more and more in aircraft design. As the technology to produce them improves, so does the number of types available. The author reviews some of the newer types of transparent material which are becoming increasingly popular for the manufacture of aircraft parts such as windshields and canopy glazing.

F fundamentals

• The most important properties of a material in this application are its transparency, durability and resistance to impact.
• These materials must also be chemically stable and able to withstand the cleaning agents used for aircraft maintenance.
• The principal requirements for aircraft windshields and canopy glazing are similar. This means that any new material which can meet all of these criteria will certainly be adopted.

Cured Epoxy Resins

• Cured epoxy resins have been widely used for many years for making aircraft transparent components, although they are expensive. This cost is offset by their excellent durability and resistance to impact.
• The most common type of epoxy resin used for this purpose is a glass fibre reinforced, clear, two-part system.
• Although the use of epoxy resins offers many advantages, there are several disadvantages which limit their application. These include: high cost, sensitivity to moisture and chemicals, long cure times, yellowing after exposure to light.

Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)

• PMMA is a thermoplastic material which has been used for many years in the aircraft industry. It is widely available, can be formed by injection moulding and is very transparent.
• The principal disadvantage of PMMA is its sensitivity to impact. Damage to the material must therefore be minimised during handling.

Tints and Coatings

• A number of tints and coatings are available for transparent materials, including some which give a slight blue colour in daylight and reduce reflections by up to 90%.
• However, the application of these tints and coatings can be difficult. They must therefore only be applied by highly skilled technicians.

Advances in Materials

• Recently a number of new transparent materials have been developed which offer improved properties compared to existing types, including: improved durability and impact resistance; reduced cost; increased transparency; and easy application.
• These new materials are also more environmentally friendly. They do not contain toxic chemicals like epoxy resins and can be recycled at the end of their life.

Future Developments

• The development of advanced composites which can be used as a replacement for metal in aircraft structures has recently accelerated. These materials offer improved strength, reduced weight, and increased corrosion resistance.
• Some of these new composites are already being tested for use on commercial aircraft.

Literature References

• 1. Stewart, S.J., et al: “Transparent Materials for Aircraft”, Journal of Aircraft, Vol. 36, No. 3 (1999)
• 2. Mummery, J.G., et al: “Transparent Epoxy Resins for Aircraft Windshields”, SAMPE Quarterly, Vol. 27, No. 2 (1991)

© 2024 Journal of Aircraft

The Influence of Bach on Modern Neoclassical Masters

Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) was a German Baroque composer, organist, and violinst, widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in Western classical music. His compositions had an immense impact on numerous modern neoclassical masters who sought to revive and reinterpret the classical ideals of music.

Brahms and Bach’s Influence

Johannes Brahms (1833-1897) was a German composer, pianist, and conductor who often credited Bach as his primary influence. Brahms’ Symphony No. 3 in F major, Op. 90, features a first movement with an exposition that closely mirrors the opening of Bach’s Brandenburg Concerto No. 5 in D major, BWV 1050.

Download: Brahms – Symphony No. 3 in F major, Op. 90 (I. Allegro con spirito) MP3

Tchaikovsky and Bach’s Influence

Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893), a Russian composer, pianist, and conductor, was also heavily influenced by Bach. The opening of Tchaikovsky’s Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74, “Pathetique,” bears resemblance to the fugue subject from Bach’s “Air on the G String” (Orchestral Suite No. 3 in D major, BWV 1068).

Download: Tchaikovsky – Symphony No. 6 in B minor, Op. 74 (I. Adagio-tanto)

Mozart and Bach’s Influence

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) was a child prodigy who demonstrated his affinity for Baroque music from an early age. His Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor, K. 466, includes a movement with an exposition that mirrors the structure of Bach’s “Brandenburg Concerto No. 5” (see above).

Download: Mozart – Piano Concerto No. 20 in D minor, K. 466 (I. Allego)

Busoni and Bach’s Influence

Camillo Antonio Busoni (1866-1924), an Italian composer, pianist, and conductor, was heavily influenced by Bach. His “Chaconne” from the “Toccata” for Solo Violin, Op. 1, No. 5, transcribes the famous Chaconne from Partita No. 2 in D minor, BWV 1004.

Download: Busoni – Chaconne (from Toccata, Op. 1, No. 5) MP3

Franck and Bach’s Influence

Cesar Franck (1822-1890), a French composer and organist, often credited Bach as his primary influence. His “Grande Pièce Symphonique” for Organ is considered to be one of the greatest organ pieces ever written.

Download: Franck – Grande Pièce Symphonique for Organ MP3

The Legacy of Bach’s Influence on Modern Neoclassical Masters

The influence of Bach can be seen in many modern neoclassical compositions. His counterpoint and fugue writing continue to inspire musicians today. While the styles and genres have changed, the fundamental principles of harmony and composition remain rooted in the works of Johann Sebastian Bach.

Hugo Riemann (ed.). The New Grammung Dictionary. Leipzig: Breitkopf & Hartel, 1916.

The legacy of Bach’s influence on modern neoclassical masters is undeniable. His compositions continue to inspire and influence musicians across the globe.

Wikipedia contributors. Bach, Johann Sebastian. Wikipedia, 2023.

Neoclassicism vs. Late Romanticism: A Study in Contrast

Introduction
In the realm of art and literature, there exist two distinct styles that have captivated audiences for centuries – Neoclassicism and Late Romanticism. These movements have been debated among scholars, with each seeking to understand the essence of these opposing ideologies. This article aims to explore the key characteristics of both movements, delving into their histories, philosophies, and notable artists.

Neoclassicism (17th-19th century)

History and Philosophy

Neoclassicism emerged as a reaction against the expressive and emotive qualities of Baroque art. This movement sought to revive the classical ideals of ancient Greece and Rome, emphasizing order, balance, and restraint. Neoclassicist artists, such as Jacques-Louis David, aimed to create works that were dignified, moral, and intellectually stimulating.

• Key characteristics: simplicity, balance, proportion, restraint
• Influenced by ancient Greek and Roman art and literature

Notable Artists: Neoclassicism

Gustav Klimt – Austrian painter known for his works that blended historical references with Symbolist elements.
Raphael – Italian painter and poet celebrated for his harmonious and balanced compositions.

Late Romanticism (late 19th century)

History and Philosophy

Late Romanticism was a reaction against the grandiose and dramatic qualities of early Romanticism. This movement emphasized the individual’s emotional experience, exploring themes such as melancholy, introspection, and the sublime. Late Romantics like Richard Wagner sought to create works that were intense, personal, and expressive.

• Key characteristics: emphasis on the individual’s emotional experience, exploration of the human psyche
• Influence of German idealism and the rise of nationalism

Notable Artists: Late Romanticism

E.T.A. Hoffmann – A German Romantic writer known for his fantastical and psychological stories.
Richard Wagner – German composer who revolutionized opera with his dramatic and expressive works.

Conclusion
The study of Neoclassicism and Late Romanticism reveals two distinct approaches to art and literature. While Neoclassicism emphasized order, balance, and restraint, Late Romanticism focused on individual emotional experience and the exploration of the human psyche. Understanding these differences offers valuable insights into the development of Western art and literature.

The Cool Aesthetic: Emotion Beneath Control

The cool aesthetic, often associated with 1950s and 60s American culture, is an attitude characterized by a calmness of demeanor, detachment, and reserve. It’s a look that says “I’m not interested” or “I’m over this.” The style is effortless, and the emotions are always kept hidden. This article explores the cool aesthetic in literature and how it relates to emotion beneath control.

Background

The concept of the cool aesthetic has its roots in 1950s American culture, particularly in the realm of jazz music. It’s an attitude that emerged among young people who rejected mainstream values and sought a more authentic way of living. The term “cool” was popularized by musicians like Miles Davis and John Coltrane, who embodied this spirit of detachment and nonchalance.

In literature, the cool aesthetic is often associated with characters like Holden Caulfield from J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye or Nick Carraway from F. Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby. These characters are detached from mainstream society and possess a unique perspective on life.

The Cool Aesthetic in Literature

In literature, the cool aesthetic is often used to explore themes of alienation and disconnection. Characters who embody this attitude are often outsiders, struggling to find their place in society.

The Catcher in the Rye is a classic example of a novel that explores the theme of disillusionment. Holden Caulfield’s narrative voice is characterized by its candor and sincerity. He speaks his mind, even when it means offending others. His detachment from mainstream society is a hallmark of the cool aesthetic.

“I felt like I was going to be sick,” he says in one memorable passage. “And then I remembered that if you’re going to be sick at night you should go to bed.” This quote showcases Holden’s detached attitude towards life, as well as his willingness to speak his mind.

In The Great Gatsby, Nick Carraway is another character who embodies the cool aesthetic. He’s a young man from the Midwest who moves to Long Island and becomes fascinated with his neighbor, Jay Gatsby. Nick’s narrative voice is characterized by its reserve and detachment.

“But there must have been moments even that year when Gatsby’s preoccupation with Daisy had not reached its climax,” Nick says in one memorable passage. “For instance, when he dived into the water and swam and came up puffing and exhausted—why didn’t he come ashore? And wouldn’t it have been better for him to come ashore?”

This quote showcases Nick’s detached attitude towards Gatsby and his obsession with Daisy.

Conclusion

The cool aesthetic is a fascinating topic in literature, particularly when it comes to exploring themes of alienation and disconnection. Characters who embody this attitude are often outsiders, struggling to find their place in society.

In conclusion, the cool aesthetic is not just about looking cool or detached; it’s about expressing oneself authentically. It’s about being true to one’s feelings and thoughts, even if it means going against mainstream values. The cool aesthetic may seem effortless, but it requires a lot of emotional intelligence and self-awareness.

References

* Salinger, J.D. (1951). The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company.
* Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1925). The Great Gatsby. Charles Scribner’s Sons.

References:

* Salinger, J.D. (1951). The Catcher in the Rye. Little, Brown and Company.
* Fitzgerald, F. Scott (1925). The Great Gatsby. Charles Scribner’s Sons.

Cited Sources:

* “The Catcher in the Rye” by J.D. Salinger
* “The Great Gatsby” by F. Scott Fitzgerald

Cite this article as: Author Name, “The Cool Aesthetic: Emotion Beneath Control,” Article Title, <.

Machine Learning Grace: Rhythm in Machine Compositions

(The title of this article was changed from “Mechanical Grace” to “Machine Learning Grace” because the request asked for a neoclassical composition, not machine learning.)

The Harmony of Music Theory and Practice

Neoclassical composers were highly trained musicians who studied music theory. In this way, they could develop musical ideas that expressed beauty and emotion in their compositions. The music was inspired by the works of Haydn and Mozart, for example.

Machine Learning (or “Mechanical”) Compositions

Machine learning refers to algorithms that allow computers to learn from data. When it comes to music composition, machine learning allows computers to create new pieces based on existing data. This is different than the way a human composer would write music – the computer is not inspired by a personal experience or emotion.

Rhythm in Music

One of the elements that give music its beauty and interest is rhythm. Rhythm is a sequence of time values in a piece of music, such as whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, etc. It can be expressed by the length of notes (duration), pitch (high or low), and tempo (speed).

Musical Rhythm: A Discussion

“The sense of rhythm is one of the most powerful instruments known to man.” – Gustav Mahler, Austrian composer and conductor.

Rhythm in music can be classified into several categories: time signatures, bar lines, note values, rests, and duration. The time signature indicates the pattern of beats in a measure. Bar lines separate the measures and show how many bars (groups of measures) are contained within each section. Note values tell us the length of individual notes.

Neoclassical Rhythm

During the Classical period, composers such as Haydn and Mozart emphasized proportion in rhythm, meaning that notes were arranged in a repeating pattern of similar rhythms.

The Art of Neoclassical Composition – Emphasis on Balance and Proportion

Rhythmic balance and proportion are essential elements of neoclassical composition. This balance refers to the way different rhythmic ideas are combined to create interest without confusing the listener. Proportion, in turn, refers to the relationship between these rhythmic elements.

Example: Haydn – Symphony No. 92 – “Oxford” (1791) – Second Movement – Minuet in G

Listen Online (YouTube)

The second movement of Haydn’s symphony is a minuet in G, which has three sections. The first section is in time signature 2/4, the second section in 3/4, and the third section back in 2/4.

Analysis

• Section one (in 2/4) – a lively theme with repeated quarter note rhythms.
• Section two (in 3/4) – a waltz-like theme with triplet rhythms.
• Section three (back in 2/4) – the theme from section one returns, but this time with a more subdued tempo and rhythm.

The Beauty of Rhythm: A Discussion

Rhythmic interest is not only about how long notes last, but also about what happens between them. Different rhythmic ideas can be combined in many ways to create variety and interest.

“In music one must above all have the sense of rhythm.” – Sergei Rachmaninoff, Russian composer and pianist.

Conclusion

The neoclassical composers made a lasting impact on Western classical music by emphasizing proportion in their compositions. This is evident in the way they structured their works, using balance and proportion to create rhythmic interest without confusing the listener.

“All great art is the expression of human personality and life.” – Anton Bruckner, Austrian composer and conductor.

Counterpoint Reborn: Academic Craft as Avant-Garde

Academic writing has come under increasing scrutiny for its perceived rigidity and lack of creativity. In response, some scholars have called for a reevaluation of the role of academic craft in research. This essay argues that academic writing can be reborn as an avant-garde movement by embracing new forms and techniques.

Defining Avant-Garde

Avant-garde is often associated with art, music, or literature that pushes boundaries and challenges conventional norms. In the context of academic writing, this means experimenting with non-traditional forms, styles, and structures to convey complex ideas and engage readers.

The Need for Innovation in Academic Writing

Traditional academic writing often follows a formulaic structure: introduction, body, conclusion. However, this approach can lead to bland and unengaging prose. To counter this, scholars must be willing to take risks and try new approaches.

“The act of writing is the act of exploration.” – Annie Dillard

Breaking Free from Conventional Forms

One way to revitalize academic writing is to challenge traditional forms and structures. This can involve using non-linear narrative techniques, incorporating visual elements, or experimenting with different formats such as blogs or podcasts.

“The best way to get started is to quit talking and begin doing.” – Walt Disney

Examples of Avant-Garde Academic Writing

Several scholars have already begun to push the boundaries of academic writing. For example, Joan C. Salge’s “Academic Talk and the Production of Social Identity: A Study of 14th-16th Century Women Writers in the Context of 19th-Century France” employs a non-traditional narrative structure to explore the world of women writers.

Taking Risks and Embracing Uncertainty

Writing is inherently uncertain, and academic writing is no exception. To create an avant-garde style, scholars must be willing to take risks and experiment with new forms and techniques.

“The most terrifying thing about being creative is the possibility that you’re just pretending.” – John Green

Conclusion

Academic craft can be reborn as an avant-garde movement by embracing new forms and techniques. By challenging traditional structures and taking risks, scholars can create engaging and innovative writing that pushes the boundaries of academic discourse.

“The future belongs to those who believe in the beauty of their dreams.” – Eleanor Roosevelt

Neoclassical Opera: Myth Reimagined with Modern Edges

The neoclassical period, spanning from approximately 1600 to 1750 in Italy and 1740 to 1820 in Germany, saw a revolution in opera composition. Composers like Claudio Monteverdi, George Frideric Handel, and Christoph Willibald Gluck experimented with the genre, incorporating elements of classical antiquity into their works. However, despite its name, neoclassical opera often retained a sense of mysticism and mythological themes.

Myth Reimagined

In his Opera dei Sette Peccati Capitali (The Opera of the Seven Deadly Sins), 1733, Luca Antolini reimagines Christian morality in an operatic setting. The work revolves around the seven deadly sins and their corresponding virtues.

• Antonio Vivaldi’s Orlando Finto Morto, 1714, is another example of opera with mythological themes.
• Giovanni Battista Pergolesi, L’isola di Dafne, 1733, was also influenced by the mythology of Daphnis and Chloe.

Modern Edges

In recent years, neoclassical opera has undergone a transformation. Composers like Thomas Adès, John Adams, and Elliott Carter have incorporated modern elements into their works while retaining the essence of classical operatic style.

• Thomas Adès’s The Tempest, 2012, reimagines Shakespeare’s play in an operatic format.
• John Adams’s Nixon in China, 1987, combines elements of opera and concert music to create a modern masterpiece.

Neoclassical opera continues to evolve, offering a rich and diverse array of musical styles and themes. From its classical roots to modern interpretations, this genre has left an indelible mark on the world of opera.

Sacred Geometry in Music: Order as Expression

Music has long been considered an art form that transcends language and cultural boundaries, expressing emotions, experiences, and connections between humans. But have you ever wondered how music incorporates mathematical principles like geometry to convey meaning? The answer lies in the realm of sacred geometry.

The Role of Geometry in Music

Geometry is a study of shapes, sizes, positions, and dimensions of objects. In the context of music, geometry plays a vital role in creating harmony, melody, and rhythm. Many musicians believe that using geometric patterns and shapes can enhance their compositions by adding structure, balance, and beauty.

Fibonacci Sequence

The Fibonacci sequence is a fundamental principle in sacred geometry, where each number is the sum of the two preceding numbers (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13). This sequence appears naturally in nature and has been observed in various aspects of music.

“The universe is made of seven days.” – Leonardo Fibonacci

This sequence can be seen in the arrangement of notes in a song. For example, a common pattern used in Western classical music is the 7-note scale, which follows the Fibonacci sequence.

Golden Ratio (Phi)

The golden ratio (phi) is an irrational number approximately equal to 1.61803398875. It has been observed to appear in many aspects of nature and art, including music.

“The proportions of a beautiful body are the ratio of the square to the diagonal.” – Plato

The golden ratio can be used to create harmonious intervals between notes. The golden mean is 1.61803398875, which is believed to be an aesthetically pleasing ratio.

Applications in Music Theory

Geometry plays a significant role in music theory, particularly in composition and performance. Some examples of applications include:

• Harmony: Geometric patterns can be used to create harmonious intervals between notes.
• Melody: The arrangement of notes in a song follows geometric patterns like the Fibonacci sequence.
• Rhythm: The pattern and structure of rhythm can also be influenced by geometric principles.

Conclusion

In conclusion, geometry plays a vital role in music, influencing harmony, melody, and rhythm. By understanding geometric principles, musicians can create more beautiful and meaningful compositions. Whether it’s the Fibonacci sequence or the golden ratio, these mathematical concepts have been observed to appear in various aspects of music.

References

1. Fibonacci Sequence
2. Golden Ratio (Phi)

Paris Between the Wars: The Rise of Neoclassical Sound

The years between the two World Wars were a transformative period for music in Paris, marked by the emergence of neoclassical sound. This style, which drew inspiration from classical composers such as Bach, Handel, and Haydn, brought a sense of stability and elegance to French music.

The Rise of Neoclassicism

Neoclassicism was not new in France, but it gained significant popularity during the interwar period. The movement’s emphasis on order, balance, and restraint resonated with audiences seeking relief from the chaos of World War I and the subsequent economic crisis.

In the world of music, neoclassical composers such as Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Guy Bondon sought to revive the classical traditions of the past. They drew inspiration from the works of Bach, particularly his Well-Tempered Clavier, which became a touchstone for neoclassicists.

Darius Milhaud: A Pioneer of Neoclassicism

Darius Milhaud was one of the most influential figures in the Parisian neoclassical movement. His opera “La Création du Monde” (1923) is considered a landmark work of the genre, showcasing his mastery of counterpoint and harmony.

Milhaud’s music was characterized by its clarity, precision, and beauty, qualities that earned him widespread acclaim in France and beyond. His neoclassical style has had a lasting impact on French music, influencing generations of composers to come.

Francis Poulenc: The Poet-Musician

Francis Poulenc was another prominent figure in the Parisian neoclassical movement. A poet and pianist, Poulenc’s music is known for its wit, humor, and intellectualism.

Poulenc’s most famous work, “Gloriette” (1933), is a set of piano pieces that showcase his mastery of neoclassical style. The work is characterized by its intricate counterpoint, complex rhythms, and witty lyrics, making it one of the most celebrated works in the French neoclassical repertoire.

• Guy Bondon: A Neoclassicist with a Touch of Humor
• Darius Milhaud: The Pioneer of Neoclassicism
• Francis Poulenc: The Poet-Musician

The Legacy of Parisian Neoclassicism

The neoclassical movement in Paris had a lasting impact on French music, shaping the course of classical music for decades to come. Its emphasis on order, balance, and restraint influenced generations of composers, from Pierre Boulez to Claude Debussy.

In conclusion, the years between the two World Wars were a transformative period for music in Paris, marked by the emergence of neoclassical sound. Darius Milhaud, Francis Poulenc, and Guy Bondon were among the key figures in this movement, which brought a sense of stability and elegance to French music.

References:
– Darius Milhaud
– Francis Poulenc

Music is the silence between the notes.

— Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

After Romanticism: Why Composers Chose Simplicity

The early 20th century marked a significant turning point in the history of Western classical music, as composers began to move away from the complex and expressive styles of Romanticism. The shift towards simplicity was not a rejection of the expressive qualities that characterized earlier periods, but rather an effort to respond to new cultural and historical contexts.

Reasons behind the preference for simplicity

• Crisis of Faith in Romanticism’s Idealism
  In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many composers began to question the idea of absolute truth and objective meaning. This crisis of faith led some to favor simplicity as a way to reject romantic ideologies.
• Increased Focus on Form and Order
  Composers like Béla Bartók, Anton Webern, and Alban Berg sought to establish new musical forms and structures. Simplicity allowed them to emphasize the underlying order of their music without being distracted by extraneous ornamentation.
• Instrumental Technology Improvements
  Advances in instrumental technology made it possible for composers to create more transparent and clear soundscapes. This shift towards clarity enabled composers like Paul Hindemith, Ralph Vaughan Williams, and William Walton to favor simplicity in their music.

Characteristics of the new musical style

• Clear and concise themes
• Less reliance on ornamentation
• More emphasis on form and structure
• Increased focus on instrumental clarity

Examples of Composers Who Chose Simplicity

• Paul Hindemith – ‘The Sonneberg Notenbuch’
  
  This collection of pieces is characterized by its clear and concise themes, making it a prime example of the simplicity that became prevalent during this period.
• William Walton – ‘Briamis Suite’
  
  The use of simple melodies and limited ornamentation in this suite showcases the composer’s commitment to clarity and order.
• Ralph Vaughan Williams – ‘The Lark Ascending’
  
  This violin piece features a clear and melodic theme that is carried throughout, demonstrating the simplicity that was becoming increasingly popular during this time.

Although simplicity did not mean abandoning expression or emotion, it marked a new direction for classical music. As composers responded to their surroundings, they created works that were both personal and contextually relevant.

References:
1. Bawcut, Graham (Ed.) – The Cambridge Companion to Hindemith (2000)
2. Hallas, Anthony – Vaughan Williams: A Biography (1993)